Training Methods İn Hr

There are plenty of methods and techniques used in training Some of them have the goal of meeting training needs; others are narrower in scope and have been developed to meet a special training need or to improve on present techniques

Generally production employees are trained through broad methods such as apprenticeship as an on the job training method Similarly, in training executives, we find such methods as on the job coaching and formal classroom procedures Within the framework of these broad methods, many techniques are used to facilitate learning Visual aids, demonstrations are examples for these techniques
The question of cost and profitability is important for selection of a technique Some techniques, like the lecture, may appear to be quite inexpensive because a single person can prepare his talks in a minimum of time and then present it to large trainee audiences When we consider profitability, we must add to our formulations that which is learned by each individual and whether or not that learning is transferred and maintained on the job If the lecture results in no behavior changes or in undesired changes, it will be an extremely unprofitable training technique
We can make distinctions between training methods in the degree to which the trainee is expected to acquire these skills, knowledge and attitudes through experiences other than job performance Therefore, we’ll examine the study in three main parts; on the job training, off the job training and technology based trainings
1 ON THE JOB TRAINING
After the decision of training employees and identifying training needs and goals, then its time to design training program The training content and program sequence can be created by himself but there is also a vast selection of online and offline content and packages from which to choose It can be found turnkey, off-the-shelf programs on virtually any topic from tens of thousands of online and offline providers[1]
Management developmentis any attempt to improve managerial performance by imparting knowledge, changing attitudes, or increasing skills The main aim is of course to enhance the future performance of the company itself The general management development process consist of (1) assessing the company’s strategic needs (2) Appraising the manager’s current performance, and (3) developing the managers and future managers[2]
Management development sometimes regarded as a part of organizational development The systematic approach can’t be applied to development, which aims to prepare for future jobs where as training is concerned with improving performance in the present jobs Validation of a management development programme is therefore very difficult[3]
In any case, there are various methods that are companies use to actually deliver the training We will start with what is probably the most popular is on the job training
11 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ON THE JOB TRAINING METHODS
On the job training (OJT) means having a person learn a job by actually doing it[4] On the job training is given the normal work situation, the trainee using the actual tools, equipment, documents or materials that he or she will use when fully trained The trainee is regarded as a partly productive worker from the time training begins[5]Every employee, from mailroom clerk to company president, gets on the job training when he or she joins a firm In many companies the only training method is OJT
The main advantages can be list in order[6];

• It is less costly than off the job training
• Learning will be than with the actual equipment so there will not be transfer of learning problems
• Training is in the production environment from the beginning, this solves adjusting problems in the off the job training

Although it has these advantages, disadvantages are like these[7]:

• The instructor can have time problem or can be a poor teacher
• If the trainee has been taught by bad methods, he or she will teach like that
• A large amount of spoiled work and scrap material may be produced
• Valuable equipment may be damaged
• Training takes place under production conditions which are stressful that inhibits learning
• Theoretical training can’t be done on the job The trainee must attend a college which is off-job training

After this list, we can present the success steps of OJT Here are some steps to help ensure OJT success:[8]
Step1 Prepare the learner
[*]Put the learner at ease-relieve the tension[*]Explain why he or she is being taught[*]Create interest, encourage questions, find out what the learner already knows about this or other jobs[*]Explain the whole job and relate it to soma job the worker already knows[*]Place the learner as close to the normal working position as possible[*]Familiarize the worker with equipment, materials, tools and trade terms
Step2 Present the operation
[*]Explain quantity and quality requirements[*]Go through the job at the normal work place[*]Go through the job at a slow pace several times, explaining each step Between operations, explain the difficult parts, or those in which errors are likely to be made[*]Again go through the job at a slow pace several times; explain the key points[*]Have the learner explain the steps as you go through the job at a slow pace
Step3 Do a tryout
[*]Have the learner go through the job several times, slowly, explaining each step to you Correct mistakes and, if necessary, do some of the complicated steps the first five times[*]Run the job at the normal pace[*]Have the learner do the job, gradually building up skill and speed[*]As soon as the learner demonstrates ability to do the job, let the work begin, but don’t abandon him or her
Step4 Follow up
[*]Designate to whom the learner should go for help[*]Gradually decrease supervision, checking work from time to time against quality and quantity standards[*]Correct faulty work patterns before they become a habit Show why the learned method is superior[*]Compliment good work, encourage the worker until he or she is able to meet the quality and quantity standards
12 ON THE JOB TRAINING METHODS
121 APPRENTICESHIP
Apprenticeship training provides beginning workers with comprehensive training both on and off the job in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work required in a highly skilled occupation[9] This type of training helps become skilled workers through a combination of classroom instruction and on the job training It is widely used to train individuals for many occupations It traditionally involves having the learner study under the tutelage of a master craftsperson[10]A skilled and experienced employee conducts on-the-job training during the apprenticeship period The purpose of this training is to learn the practical skills of the job [11] Apprenticeship programs last generally from two to five years, with four years being the average length They combine on-the-job instruction together with a minimum of 144 hours per year of classroom and shop instruction The apprentice method involves the organization’s delegating the responsibility for socialization of new employees to several of its skilled journeymen Thus the journeymen trainers are a critical component of this socialization process, in that they serve as a model to be emulated by the apprentices Apprenticeship training like other OJT has as its major goal skill development It too uses mainly a behavioral change strategy[12] Wages paid apprentices usually begin at half those paid fully trained employees However the wages are generally advanced rapidly at six month intervals[13]
122 ORIENTATION TRAINING
It is known as accustoming to the job as well Orientation training is applied for introducing the company, coworkers, and managers and doing job description to the personnel who are just taken to the job in order to make him accommodate to the new job And this provides quick adaptation and high motivation to the new job Beside new personnel, orientation can be applied to the personnel who change their department and the personnel that are leaved from the company for a long time because of military service or to be entrusted with a task in other cities or countries for temporary works But generally it is applied to the new personnel because the first day is important for the point of view to the company[14]
But unfortunately in most companies orientation training can’t be applied salutary or training can be perceive as a handbook about company’s policy and regulation Whereas new personnel need information about three main subjects[15]:
[*]Standards, expectations, regulations, traditions, policies of the company[*]The management style, working conditions of the company and knowing coworkers and managers[*]Technical characteristic of the job that the person will do
Generally in big companies the responsibility about applying orientation training is sharing with one or two superstructure, and if there is representatives from training department or human resource department and the manager that new personnel work together Superstructures give information about philosophy of business and expectations from workers Training or human resource department give information about past of business, goals, policy, procedure, the benefits and services to the personnel, regulation that are general and concern about whole company And the manager that the new personnel work together gives information concern with the department and job And introduce to the coworkers The top executive’s responsibility about adaptation new personnel’s is bigger than others[16]
123 UNDERSTUDY ASSIGNMENTS
Under this method, superiors delegate some of their responsibilities to their subordinates This is generally a managerial training method The delegated responsibilities to the subordinates should be uncritical for the organization, otherwise, if an error occurs, it will create lots of problems for the company[17]Understudy assignments are used to develop an individual’s capability, skills and qualifications to fill a specific job The individual is designated as the heir to a job The heir is usually assistant manager, administrative assistant or assistant to a particular manager The advantage of this method is that the heir can learn in a practical and realistic situation without being directly responsible for operating results The negative side is understudy learns the bad as well as the good practices of the incumbent and it can be in time expensive[18] The effectiveness of understudy assignments depends on the willingness and ability of the higher level manager to share experience and to transfer knowledge to their heir[19]
124 COACHING
This may vary from a rather casual “sitting next to Nellie” approach the formal regular sessions in which an experienced employee, usually a manager explains the job, asks the trainee questions to test his or her knowledge and often exercises general supervision over the trainee to check that he or she is making correct use of the knowledge[20] In coaching, guided inquiry, active listening, reframing and other techniques are used to help individuals see new or different possibilities and to direct their efforts toward what matters most to them[21] Coaching emphasizes the responsibility of all managers for developing employees Under this method, experienced managers advise and guide trainees in solving managerial problems, allow the trainees to develop their own approaches to management[22]
Coaching serves a number of important functions within an organization They let subordinates know what their supervisors think about how they do their jobs Coaching enables supervisors and employees to work together on ways in which employees can improve their performance and improve communication and collaboration between supervisors and employees And lastly it provides a framework for establishing short and long term personal career goals[23]
But this system cause some problems in organizations, managers and supervisors sometimes feel uncomfortable because of the position of “playing God” The general attitude to criticism to the performance of the employee by the manager were often perceived by the individual as threatening to self-esteem, and resulted in defensive behavior The defensiveness causes less favorable attitudes toward the coaching program This kind of problems because of manager’s two conflict roles: judge and helper When the manager is discussion about the employee’s performance with respect to salary and promotion decisions, he is a “judge” When they work together to improve the employee’s performance, at that time, he is a “helper” To be able to find solution to this kind of problems companies should follow these suggestions[24]:
[*]Supervisor should do more listening than talking[*]Setting specific performance improvement goals in the coaching session are more effective[*]Specific improvement goals should be mutually set by the supervisor and the employee[*]A helpful and constructive attitude on the part of supervisor helps increasing motivation and setting goals[*]Criticism should be kept to a minimum[*]A supervisor should feed beck to the employee both behavior and results information[*]A more defensible approach is a variable-interval schedule
And it is important to note that many organizations today train their managers and supervisors to conduct effective coaching session with their employees because it it increase motivation and communication
125 MENTORING
Mentoring is an experience sharing relationship between a junior employee and a senior manager in order to help the junior employee to improve his or her technical and interpersonal skills The manager provides coaching, protection and sponsorship to the junior employee[25]
Mentoring is an agreement, relation between two people who share their experiences, experts, ideas to serve their personnel and professional improvements In this relation, mentor spends time and effort serving as a model to improve trainees’ productivity achievements and to participate in a high-visibility activity either inside or outside the organization The trainees, who are mentored, benefit from mentor’s knowledge and experience[26]
While coaching by an employee’s immediate superior usually focuses on job performance, mentoring is usually much broader and focuses on general career and personal development The mentor is different person from immediate superior and usually is a person of higher rank from outside the employee’s department Mentoring can be applied on a person-to-person basis or the mentor can meet with a small group of four to six protégés, or in both group and one-and-one sessions[27]
Mentor might advise the mentee about the firm’s informal political system, act as a “sounding board” for the mentee’s ideas, and provide information of a mundane nature which the mentee would feel embarrassed seeking from other sources
Mentoring helps to increase employee motivation, job performance, and organizational culture People learn what is expected of them and what can they expect from the organization And mentoring give opportunity to take feedback from lower levels[28]
Although this kind of advantages, there can be some problems, mentor and mentee may not get on; the mentor might be keen but not psychologically suitable for mentoring or may be transmit to the mentee bad attitudes towards the organization Also the mentee might not consider the mentor to be sufficiently well-qualified to undertake the job[29]
126 JOB ROTATION
One form of managerial on the job training is “job rotation” and it is sometimes called as “cross training” and it is a training that requires an individual to learn several different jobs in a work unit or department and perform each job for a specified time period [30]Job rotations and transfers which are often based on an analysis of career paths are designed to prepare managers to take on additional responsibilities Many transfers are considered lateral promotions: that is, the manager is placed in a position that carries similar authority and responsibility in a different part of the organization Job rotation is designed to give an individual broad experience to work in many different departments of the organization for specific periods, generally remaining in each from six months to a year[31]
One main advantage of job rotation is that it makes flexibility possible in department[32]And it helps to the employee’s to involve personally in departmental operations The best way to do this is to give them full responsibility in order to give judgment and decision opportunity With job rotation, trainees gain an overall perspective of the organization and an understanding of the interrelationships among its various parts[33] After trainees learn the departments business by actually doing it, they discover what jobs he or she prefers[34] Trainees improve their problem-solving, decision-making abilities and self-awareness At the same time job rotation is the best method for preparing high-potential specialists for future vital responsibilities [35]
This method’s effectiveness is due to it’s not being a lock-step system in which all trainees proceed through the same departments in a standardized sequence Trainee’s aptitude profiles and interest patterns should determine their particular pattern of assignments Moreover the trainees should only be placed in company locations where they will receive feedback, reinforcement, and monitoring of their performance by interested and competent supervisors[36]
2 TECHNOLOGY-BASED TRAINING METHODS
211 COMPUTER BASED TRAINING
In computer based training the training the trainee uses a computer based system to interactively increase his or her knowledge or skills
Vestibule or simulated training doesn’t necessarily have to rely on computerization However, computer based training usually involves presenting trainees with computerized simulations and the use of multimedia including videotapes to help the trainee learn how to do the job For example, a computer based training program enables a major pacific North West employer to do a better job of training interviews to conduct correct and legally defensible interviews Trainees start with a computer screen that shows the applicant’s completed employment application, as well as information about the nature of the job The trainee then begins a simulated interview by typing in questions, which are answered by a videotaped model acting as the applicant and whose responses to a multitude of questions have been programmed into the computer Some items require follow up questions and as each question answered the trainee records his or her evaluation of the applicant’s answer and makes a decision about the person’s suitability for the position At the end of the session the computer tells trainee where he or she went wrong and offers further instructional material to correct these mistakes[37]
Trainers generally find CBT interesting instructional, and they can work through a package at their own pace This is advantage side but it can cause much time lost as users become familiar with the proclivities of a particular package and it requires self-discipline to do all exercises[38]
212 ELECTRONIC PERFORMANCE SUPPORT SYSTEMS
People, as their nature required, don’t remember everything that they are learnt And it’s the same about training so for complex works, firms want their employee to know about the company’s rules, culture and values, and systems and work processes with the skills they need everyday For the rest; computer-based support systems deliver what they need to know, when they need it
For example when a customer calls about a specific technical problem, a computerized job aid helps walk the customer rep through the solution, question by question
Employers have long used job aids of one sort or another A job aid is a set of instructions, diagrams, or similar methods available at the job site to guide the worker Job aids work particularly well on complex jobs that require multiple steps, or where it’s dangerous to forget a step
Electronic performance support systems (EPSS) are today’ job aids They are set of computerized tools and displays that automate training, documentation, and phone support, integrate this automation into applications, and provide support that’s faster, cheaper, and more effective than the traditional methods For example if we have a problem about computer than we call the service and he or she will present a large amount of solution about the problem They achieve this by EPSS, if not its impossible to memorize all of them[39]
213 DISTANCE AND INTERNET-BASED TRAINING
Firms today use various forms of distance learning methods for training These methods include traditional paper-and-pencil correspondence courses as well as teletraining, videoconferencing, and internet-based classes[40]
Teletraining: Teletraining is a method that a trainer in a central location teaches groups of employees at remote locations via television hookups For example, its Ohio-based subsidiary purchases seminars from the National Technology University, a provider of satellite education that uses courses from various universities and specialized teaching organizations The price is less because of existing travel payment
Videoconferencing: Firms use videoconferencing to train the employees who are geographically separated from each other, or from the trainer Videoconferencing allows people in one location to communicate live via a combination of audio and visual equipment with people in another city or country or with groups in several cities Keypads allow audience interactivity
Training via the internet: Many firms use internet-based training but some firm simply let their employees take online courses Others use their proprietary internal intranetsto facilitate computer-based training
For example Silicon Graphics transferred many of its training materials onto its intranet Now employees can access the programs whenever they want Distribution costs are zero, and if the company wants to make a change to the program, it can do so at a central location
214 AUDIOVISUAL-BASED TRAINING
Audivisual-based training techniques like films, power points, videoconferencing, audiotapes, and videotapes can be very effective and are widely used Audiovisuals are more expensive than conventional lectures but offer some advantages like being more interesting and in addition to this can be use in following situations[41]:
[*]When there is a need to illustrate how to follow a certain sequence over time, such as when teaching fax machine repair[*]When there is a need to expose trainees to events not easily demonstrable in live lectures, such as a visual tour of a factory or open-heart surgery[*]When you need organization wide training and it is costly moving trainers
3 SUPPLY INFORMATION METHODS OF TRAINING
311 INFORMAL LEARNING
Employers shouldn’t underestimate the importance of informal learning because the surveys from the American Society for Training and Development shows that 80 percent of what employees learn through informal means, including performing their jobs on a daily basis in collaboration with their colleagues[42]
Although managers don’t arrange informal learning, they can in any way encourage the employees to do this kind of relationships Even things like installing white boards and keeping them stocked with markers can be example of informal learning[43]
312 LITERACY TRAINING TECHNIQUE
The abilities to write speak and work well with others are critical in today’s business environment[44] Employers are responding in two main ways First companies are testing job candidates’ basic skills and second response is to set up basic skills and literacy programs In some firms some employees may be fall below required level Formal classes can be instituted to help employees raise their math and reading skills In many industries or locales customers speak a variety of languages and for a company to thrive, its workforce may have to be bilingual or multilingual Employees with weak reading, writing or arithmetic skills may cause systematic problems in the job So some business uses this training to avoid from this kind of technical problems[45]But unfortunately many workers don’t meet employer requirements in these areas[46]
313 JOB INSTRUCTION TRAINING
Job instruction training (JIT) is a process in which jobs consists of a logical sequence of steps Firstly all necessary steps in the job should be listed, each in its proper sequence Alongside each step also list a corresponding “key point” The steps will show what is to be done, and the key points will show how it’s to be done[47]
An example can show this steps and key points to a trainee how to operate a large, motorized paper cutter[48]:
STEPS KEY POINTS 1 Start motor None 2 Set cutting distance Carefully read scale-to prevent wrong-sized cut 3 Place paper on cutting table Make sure paper is even-to prevent to prevent uneven cut 4 Push paper up to cutter Make sure paper is tight-to prevent uneven cut 5 Grasp safety release with left hand Don’t release left hand-to prevent hand from being caught in cutter 6 Grasp cutter release with right hand Don’t release right hand-to prevent hand from being caught in cutter 7 Simultaneously pull cutter and safety releases Keep both hands on corresponding releases-avoid hands being on cutting table 8 Wait for cutter to retract Keep both hands on releases-to avoid having hands on cutting table 9 Retract paper Make sure cutter is reacted; keep both hands away from releases 10 Shut off motor None 314 LECTURES
It is a speech with very limited discussions In lectures listeners are often passive They include media such as transparencies, slides, or videotapes[49]Lectures are both used for non-managerial level and managerial level
When a company has a number of trainees in the same kind of work, they can arrange lectures which are more specific to the company needs than technical colleges If it is prepared suitable its effective but the things that are learned by reading can be remembered 25 percent of all so this can make its useless[50]
Lecturing is a simple and quick way to provide knowledge to large groups of trainers, as when the sales force must be taught the special features of a new product While written material like books and manuals could be used instead, they may involve considerable printing expense, and they don’t permit the give and take of questioning that lectures do[51]
These useful guidelines can help for presenting a lecture:
[*]Giving signals to the listeners to help them following the speech[*]Starting with the right sentences[*]Conclusion should be short[*]Being alert with the audience[*]Maintaining eye contact with the trainees[*]Ensuring everyone’s in the room hear the speech clearly[*]Controlling hands[*]Talking from notes rather than from a script[*]Breaking long talks into a series of five-minute talks[*]Practicing
315 CONFERENCE AND DISCUSSION METHOD
Conferences are given to the employees on subjects who are related to their jobs By these conferences, employees learn new knowledge and are enlightened on the specific points During the conference, employees can direct their questions to the trainers and find the chance to learn all they want During the conferences, overhead projectors, videos and specific electronic devices can be used by the trainer to increase effectiveness of the program[52]
4 OFF THE JOB TRAINING METHODS
Under these methods, employees are trained out of their usual workshop and offices In other words, they are away from their regular workplaces Usually, off the job training methods are theoretical General principles and rules are given systematically to participants in these training methods[53]
The trainee is not regarded as a productive worker from the beginning, the initial work often consisting of exercices Off the job training may take place on the employer’s premises, at a training centre attended by trainees from several employers, or at a college[54]
41 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
OFF THE JOB TRAINING METHOD[55]
411 ADVANTAGES

• Off the job training allows the trainee to acquire skills and knowledge in a setting-away from the day-to day job pressures For instance, the building mechanic, assembly-line worker and chemical plant operator can each learn their jobs without worrying about a boiler explosion, the stoppage of an entire assembly line or the faulty generation of toxic gases
• The use of competent outside resource people who are trained trainers Such people may include technicians, university faculty and consultants
• As the training is given by a special instructor, it should be of higher quality
• Special equipment, simplified if necessary, can be used
• The trainee can learn the job in planned stages, using special exercises to enable the trainee to master particularly difficult aspects
• In the long-term off-job training may be less costly because it enables worker to reach higher standards of speed and quality
• It is free from the pressures of payment-by-results schemes, noise, danger or publicity
• The trainee will learn correct methods from the onset
• The trainee does not damage valuable equipment or produce spoiled work or scrap
• It is easier to calculate the cost of off-job training because it is more self-contained than on-job
• A serious limitation of off the job training can be the transfer of learning from “classroom” to the job Too often, trainees learn new facts and principles at lectures and special conferences with no idea as to how to apply what they learn on the job
• The cost is higher than on the job training
• No training can be entirely off-job; some aspects of the task can only be learned by doing them in the normal production setting, with its own customs and network of personal relationships To illustrate this point, training in driving might be given to a very high standard on a private track, but the driver will not be truly expert until he or she has experienced driving on public roads; only then can a learner driver learn to react to the behaviour of other drivers
• Some methods of training which have become important in recent years can only be off-job, for example programmed learning, skills analysis and discovery learning; even here the final stages of training must be on-job

412 DISADVANTAGES
42 MAIN OFF THE JOB TRAINING METHODS
421 CONFERENCE AND DISCUSSION METHOD
Conference is a carefully planned meeting with a specific purpose and goals The conference can be used for purposes other than training, but in training it can be used for executive training, supervisory training, job training in certain advanced fields, sales training, public relations training and safety education Also the technique can be used in training designed to modify employees’ attitudes toward quality, waste, discipline and work loads In many training situations, where conference techniques are used, one of the problems is overcoming resistance to change, to modify or change attitudes Basically, conference techniques are attempts to adopt “democratic” rather than “authoritarian” procedures to overcome resistance to changing behavior[56]
Conferences are given to the employees on subjects which are related to their jobs By these conferences, employees learn new knowledge and are enlightened on the specific points and find the chance to develop their qualifications and improve their skills and talents During the conference, employees can direct their questions to the trainers and find the chance to learn all they want Overhead projectors, videos and specific electronic devices can be used by the trainer to increase effectiveness of the program[57]
The usefulness of the conference springs from participation of all trainees In this sense, the conference probably incorporates motivational principles to a greater extent than a technique such as the lecture In addition, the participants are more active and because of their own participation, the content is probably more meaningful Therefore, it is obvious that the number of employees who can participate in a conference is severely limited because of the need for free expression Large groups must frequently be broken down into smaller ones with a discussion leader for each subgroup[58]
422 CLASSROOM TRAINING METHODS
It is probably the most familiar training method; useful for quickly imparting information to large groups with little or no knowledge of the subject It is useful for teaching factual material, concepts, principles and theories to technical, professional and managerial employees[59]
One of the most common methods of instruction is lecturing or teaching by the spoken word Lectures can include other media such astransparencies, slides or videotapes
Under this method, small groups (20-25) can be trained in classrooms Under conference method, large groups like 50-80 can be trained but in classroom training programs small groups can be trained[60]
423 SIMULATION METHOD
For some jobs (eg, pilot and machine operator) it is too costly, inefficient, or dangereous to train workers on the equipment used to perform the job In these cases, simulators of the equipment are designed and set up away from the actual work situation Here, hazards are removed, time pressures for productivity are minimized, individualized feedback is increased and opportunities for repeated practice are provided[61]
Simulators can be used in many different training situations They have generally been designed to represent tasks within the following categories:[62]
[*]Procedures: In this category, simulators are designed primarily to represent such things as cockpit procedures for pilots, as well as procedures for adjusting and calibrating complex electronic equipment[*]Motor skills: A simulator may be used for teaching a motor skill such as climbing telephone poles, operating presses and lathes and driving a truck[*]Conceptual tasks: Activities requiring conceptual reasoning may be represented in simulators for equipment trouble shooting, aerial photo-interpretation and navigation[*]Identifications: Simulators may represent such activities as the identification of safely hazards, terrain features and radar signals[*]Team functions: Some complex simulators emphasize the coordination of effort among team members toward the achievement of a common goal (eg, air defense system crews, missile launch teams, air traffic control tower operators and astronauts)
An example of a training simulation program is FATS It is used by more than 300 law enforcement agencies in the United States The FATS program uses a microcomputer and a 10-foot video screen to confront police officers in training with sights and sounds of a number of situations commonly encountered in police work
The airline industry has long used simulators to train pilots Unlike FATS, flight simulations often include motion in addition to visual and auditory realism This aspect substancially increases the cost of the simulation but makes the training even more realistic[63]
American Airlines reports the following advantages for using expensive flight simulators in pilot training;[64]
- Safety: Crews can practice hazardous flight maneuvers in a safe, controlled environment, without endangering personnel and multi-million dollar aircraft
- Learning Efficiency: The absence of conflicting air traffic and radio chatter that exists in real flight situations enables total concentration on the business of learning The ability to freeze a situation for an instant review of performance, or the added ability to quickly recycle or repeat key exercises greatly enhances the learning impact
- Money: The cost of flying a flight simulator is only a fraction of the cost of flying an aircraft Maintenance costs are also significantly lower Furthermore, since the flight simulator eliminates the requirement for full-time “pilot trainer” aircraft, those that would otherwise be assigned to such an activity are freed to operate for profit as intended
- Fuel: The saving of this very costly and critical commodity is a factor that takes on ever-increasing importance In terms of community relations, the flight simulator permits significant reductions in noise and air pollution Further benefits are derived from the fact that through substantial reductions in actual flight training time, simulators are providing important reductions in airspace congestion
424 LABORATORY TRAINING
Laboratory training can be described as experience-based learning workshops that utilize one or more approaches, such as case discussions, role plays, computer simulations, management games[65]
[b]Characteristics and Objectives of Laboratory Training
Laboratory training is characterized by face-to-face interaction among individuals in a group The elements of laboratory groups are as follows:
- There is a concern for the here-and-now The basis for this is the belief that the data which will most help persons learn about themselves are those which are most available
- Feelings are both appropriate and important material for analysis This is based on a belief that feelings must be part of the learning process
- There is frequent feedback and analysis, including self-disclosure involving here-and-now events that occur during group interactions This is considered an important part of the development of self-awareness based on reality testing
The objectives of laboratory training are:

• To give the trainee an understanding of how and why he acts toward other people as he does and of the way in which he affects them
• To provide some insights into why other people act the way they do
• To teach the participants how to “liten” that is, to actually hear what other people are saying rather than concentrating on a reply
• To provide insights concerning how groups operate and what processes groups go through under certain conditions
• To foster an increased tolerance and understanding of the behavior of others
• To provide a setting in which an individual can try out new ways of interacting with people and receive feedback as to how these new ways affect them

425 CASE STUDY
In the case study technique, popularized by the Harvard Business School, real and/or hypothetical situations (cases) are presented for the learner to analyze These cases comprise the former problems and events of the company or the potential problems which can come in front of trainees during their working life After trainees study the cases, they are asked to create solutions for the problems When they are trying to find out solutions they also find possibility of improving their expression and convincing abilities Also it is a good chance for the trainees to learn something from their colleagues[67]
Some major advantages and weaknesses of the case study method are as follows;
Advantages;

• Cases emphasize the analysis of a situation that is typical of the manager’s world
• The case study method improves the learner’s verbal and written communications skills
• Cases ecpose learners to a wide range of true to life management problems
• Cases inspire interests in otherwise theoretical and abstract training material

Weaknesses;

• Cases often focus on past and static considerations
• Case analaysis often lacks emotional involvement on the part of the learner and thus is unrealistic in terms of what the learner would actually do in the situation
• Case analysis can sometimes confuse learners who are used to definite situation

Furthermore, the success of the case study method depends heavily on the skills of the instructor Asking probing questions and keeping everyone involved in the analysis of the case are critical to the success of the method
A case study is an account of situations and events drawn from life and may take different forms but, whatever the form, each case embodies one or more definable issues The following typology of case studies is based on the degree of learner involvement which can be induced;[68]
The Background Case
The Exercice Case
The Situation Case
The Complex Case
The Decision Case
The In-tray Case
The Critical Incident Case
The Sequential Case
The Role Play Case
426 INCIDENT METHOD
The incident method is a specialized form of case method in which the leader presents a problem or dilemma, some critical incidents happened in an organization, and the participants can receive additional information by questioning the leader only as they request[69] The learner is initially given only the general outline of a situation Depending on responses they receive from the leader, trainees try to identify the problem and then try to develop solutions for the problem[70]
427 ROLE PLAYING
Participants are assigned different roles and required to act out roles in a realistic situation When they are playing the roles which are given to them by the trainer, they find the chance of improving their abilities, and developing their problem solving talents and human relations skills When one trainee group members are playing their roles, other trainee group members only watch them and make evaluations about the role players and criticize their behaviours and attitudes This gives the chance to the observation group members to improve themselves too[71]
Role playing involves dramatization of work situations in which the supervisors in the class play the roles of actual participants As supervisors act out these roles, they project themselves into problem situations and receive an opprotunity to practice what has been preached In typical situations involving reprimanding, assigning work, promoting and instructing, they must speak and act as good supervisors[72]
There are many different role playing techniques In one variation, trainees who disagree are asked to reverse roles This procedure is intended to make a person more aware of the other’s feelings and attitudes In other variation called multiple role-playing, a large number of participants are actively involved in the role-playing process The entire group is divided into teams that each role-play the situation At the end of a specified period of time, the participants reunite and discuss the results achieved by each separate group[73]
428 MANAGEMENT & BUSINESS GAME METHOD
These are management development exercises in which participants are given background information, instructions about rules and condition and perhaps roles to play Trainees assume themselves as the real managers of the organization and evaluate the real problems of the company, develop solutions and give the decisions on the operations of the company which are existing in the real life By this way, they improve their decision making abilities One example would be a complex computerized game in which competing groups make a series of management decisions such as product price, sale of stock, wage rates and incentory size and are given scores as they progress through a series of changes in the economic environment[74]
Business games simulate an organization and its environment and require a team of players to make decisions involving company operations In a business game, several teams act as companies within a type of industry whereas in a management game, the trainees act as a manager[75]
This method forces individuals not only work with other group members but also to function in an atmosphere of competition within the industry Advantages are that they simulate reality, decisions are made in a competitive environment, feedback is provided concerning decisions and decisions are made using less than complete data The main disadvantage is that many participants simply attempt to determine the key to winning When this occurs, the game is not used to its fullest potential as a learning device[76]
429 IN BASKET METHOD
The in basket method is a series of problems which must be acted upon by the trainee This form of playing roles has the built-in advantage of putting the trainee in a situation closely resembling the actual job being studied This approach can be a valid and reliable measure of job proficiency[77]
It consists of giving trainees a set of memos, letters and other items that the manager might find in the in-basket upon arriving at work The in-basket technique simulates a realistic situation by requiring each participant to response specific manager’s mail and to answer telephone phones The trainee should solve the problems and take decisions according to the information in-basket in a reasonable period For example, in an hour a trainee receives 10 problems and is asked the find solutions for these problems This method improves the speed of problem solving abilities of the trainees which they face in real life[78]
The trainee is required to respond by;
[*]Delaying a decision about the issue,[*]Referring the issue to someone else in the organization[*]Making a decision about the issue
The objective of this training is to help trainees determine which decision can be made quickly, which must or should be delayed and which should be referred to others It is also useful for teaching good time management, which is important enough in most managerial jobs to justify the cost of the training After all the procedures, the decisions of the training is discussed and evaluated in the group[79]
4210 SENSITIVITY TRAINING (T-GROUP TRAINING)
T-group which is a form of laboratory training usually involves small groups, of approximately 10-12 participants The trainees meet under the guidance of a trainer The groups are largely unstructured in the sense that there is a very flexible agenda and a minimum of formal leadership[80] Under this method, trainee group leader let trainees talk on any matters they want The goal is to increase the sensitivity of the trainees and to establish good relations with their peers, superiors and subordinates and by the critics of other trainees, the trainee understands the weak and negative sides of their personalities Being the self-disclosure and potential stress involved, it’s very important that T-groups be conducted by highly qualified professionals, and that participants be voluntary[81]
The T-Group is a powerful learning laboratory where individuals gain insights into the meaning and consequences of their own behavior, the meaning and consequences of others ‘ behaviors and the dynamicsand processes of group behavior The most frequently used T-group format is the “stranger” lab composed of people from a variety of organizations[82]
The costs of sensitivity training can be high as they include not only fees for personnel experienced in sensitivity learning, but also salaries and usual travel and living expenses for the participants[83]
4211 BEHAVIOR MODELING
Behavior modeling consists of presenting or showing participants a positive, useful, effective behavior or way of doing something, and then having the trainees practice the behavior through role playing and giving feedback on trainees’ performance Behavior modeling emphasizes positive reinforcement for trainees demonstrating appropriate behaviors during the role playing[84]
The basic behavior modeling procedure is as follows:[85]
[*]Modeling: First, trainees watch films or videos that show models behaving effectively in a problem situation The video might show a supervisor effectively disciplining a subordinate, if teaching how to discipline is the aim of the training program[*]Role playing: Next, the trainees are given roles to play in a simulated situation; here they practice and rehearse the effective behaviors demonstrated by the models[*]Social reinforcement: The trainer provides reinforcement in the form of praise and constructive feedback based on how the trainee performs in the role-playing situation[*]Transfer of training: Finally, trainees are encouraged to apply their new skills when they are back on their jobs
A simple problem-solving model underlies most behavior modeling training The problem-solving approach consists of five behavioral skills:[86]
1 Behavioral description Tha ability to describe behavior of self or others in specific concrete terms and to avoid generalizations or inferences drawn from observed behaviors
2 Justification The ability to clearly explain the impact of an observed behavior on the individual, the observer or the organization
3 Active listening The ability to accurately reflect both content and feelings of another’s communication
4 Participative problem solving The ability to involve another, meaningfully and appropriately in the process of solving a work related problem
5 Positive reinforcement The ability to compliment another in a sincere and authentic manner
4212 UNIVERSITY-RELATED PROGRAMS
Universities can provide executive education and continuing education programs in leadership, supervision and the like These can range from one-to-four day programs to executive development programs lasting one to four months The Advanced Management Program of the Graduate School of Business Administration at Harvard University is one traditional example A class in this program consists of experienced managers from around the world It uses cases and lectures to provide top-level management talent with the latest management skills and with practice analyzing complex organizational problems[87]
Many universities offer both credit and noncredit courses intended to help meet the management development needs of organizations Professors from different universities, good at their branches, inform theoretic side of daily issues to the managers Professional associations which use many of classroom techniques also offer a wide variety of management development programs[88]
4213 OUTDOOR-BASED AND WILDERNESS PROGRAMS
In recent years, a significant number of companies hav involved executives in outdoor-based and wilderness programs that have such objectives as fostering individual growth and development, increasing self-confidence and risk taking and building leadership and teamwork skills Both outdoor-based and wilderness programs have objectives such as fostering individual growth and development, increasing self-confidence and risk taking, and building leadership and teamwork skills In outdoor-based programs, a permanent conference center is used for both indoor and outdoor learning Participants may undertake some challenging physical, team-oriented task outdoors and then return indoors to debrief the experience In wilderness programs, the learning takes place in a wilderness area involving activities such as river rafting, and mountain climbing[89]
4214 PROGRAMMED LEARNING
Programmed learning is a systematic method for teaching job skills involving presenting questions or facts allowing the person to respond and giving the learner immediate feedback on the accuracy of his or her answers[90] Under this method, there is an unsolved problem and for solving it, instructions are given to the employees at each step First, the trainee reads the information and gives a decision If the decision is true, then trainee can pass other step If the response is wrong, then the trainee should have to get the instructions and information again and try again This will go on The handbook of the technical devices is example for this method[91]
It is individual instruction, each trainee working at his or her own pace, and can be presented as a teaching book, teaching machine or a visual display unit controlled by a computer which holds the programme[92]
The main advantage of the programmed learning is that it can reduce training time by about one-third In terms of the principles of learning listed earlier, programmed instruction can also facilitate learning, because it lets trainees learn at their own pace, provides immediate feedback, and reduces the risk of error
On the other hand, trainees don’t learn much more from programmed learning then they would from a traditional text book Therefore, the cost of developing the manuals and software for programmed instruction has to be weighted against the accelerated but not improved learning that should occur[93]
CONCLUSION
On the job training naturally has both benefits and drawbacks The quality and content of on the job training can vary substantially across organizations This variability makes it difficult for employers to judge the skill level of a potential worker from another orgnization Off the job training is an effective alternative of on the job training But the choice between using on the job or off the job training methods depends on the goals to be achieved (self-awareness, job skills, motivation) and the types of employees being trained Off the job methods are best for improving skills; while on the job methods seem most applicable for job skills and motivational training
Training is a process that contains the trainee and trainer, so its effectiveness is due to the trainer’s choice about the most suitable training method to the trainee, the trainng subject and the aim of the training In order to apply training program there are lots of techniques and every day new methods and techniques are being found We tried to explain general methods of training We did three main classifications It could be classified differently but in the end the methods are various and the most important thing choosing the suitable one
To give the best training the related managers should know about all methods and they should be careful about that the choice is not only economic decision, it is a complex and important process

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[*]Barutçugil, İsmet, Stratejik İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, İstanbul: Kariyer Yayıncılık, 2004[*]Berzek, MNail, Human Resource Management, 2 nd Edition, Private Marmara Contemporary Sciences Foundation Educational Institutions, 1998[*]Byars, Lloyd L, Rue,Leslie W, Human Resource Management, 6th Edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, Boston, 2000[*]Cummings, Thomas G and Warley, Organization Development and Change, 8 th Edition, Thomson South Western, Ohio, 2005[*]Dessler, Gary, Human Resouce Managment, 10th ed, New Jersey:Prentice Hall, 2005[*]Ergen, Erbil, İnsan Kaynakları Yönetiminde Eğitim, Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış YLisans Tezi, İstanbul, 2005[*]French, Wendell, Human Resource Management, 3rd Edition, Houghton Mifflin, 1994[*]French,Wendell L,Bell,Cecil H, Organizational Development,Behavioral Science Interventions for Organization Improvement, 6 th Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1999[*]Goldstein, Irwin L, Training in Organizations, Needs Assesment, Development and Evaluation, 2nd Edition, Brookss/Cole Publishing Company, California, 1986[*]Gomez-Meijia, LR, Balkin, DB, Cardy, RL, Managing Human Resources, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2001[*]Graham, HT and Bennett, Human Resources Management, Financial Times-Pitman Publishing, 9th Edition, Harlow, 1998[*]Mathis, Robert, Jackson, John H,Personel/Human Resource Management, Minessota: West Publishing Company, 1991[*]Mc Gehee, W; Thayer, Paul W; Training in Business and Industry, John Wiley Edition, New York, 1961[*]Nevin Deniz, Global Eğitim, Türkmen Kitabevi, İstanbul,1999[*]Planty, Earl G, Mc Card, Williams, Efferson, Carlos A, Training Employees and Managers (For Production and Teamwork), The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1948[*]Proctor; JP, Thornton; WM, Training: A Handbook for Line Managers, American Management Associatio, New York, 1961[*]Sabuncuoğlu, Z, İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Ezgi Kitabevi, Bursa, 2000[*]Taylor, B; Lippitt, Gordon L, Management Development and Training Handbook, McGraw Hill, London, 1975[*]Wexley, Kenneth N, Plathom, G, Seattle, W S, Developing and Training Human Resource Management in Organizations, Foresman Company, London, 1981
[1]Dessler, Gary, Human Resouce Managment,10th ed, New Jersey:Prentice Hall, 2005, p275 [2] Dessler, opcit, p285
[3] Graham, HT, Bennet, Roger, ,Human Resouce Managment, 9th ed, Harlow:Pitman Publishing,1998 p306
[4] Dessler, opcit, p275
[5] Graham, HT, opcit, p285
[6] Graham, opcit, p286
[7] ibid
[8] Dessler, opcit, p276
[9] Byars, Lloyd L,Rue,Leslie W, Human Resource Management, 6th Edition, Irwın McGraw-Hıll, Boston, 2000, p214
[10] Dessler, opcit, p276
[11] Byars and Rue, opcit, p214
[12] Wexley ,Kenneth N, Gary, P Latham, Developing and Training Human Resources in Organizations, London: Scott,Foresman and Company, 1981,p112
[13] Byars and Rue, opcit, p214
[14] Nevin Deniz, Global Eğitim, İstanbul:Türkmen Yay,1999,p71
[15] Nevin Deniz, opcit,p72
[16] ibid
[17] Berzek, MNail, Human Resource Management , 2 nd Edition, Private Marmara Contemporary Sciences Foundation Educational Instıtutıons, 1998, p88
[18] Byars and Rue, opcit, p231
[19] French, Wendell , Human Resource Management, 3 rd Edition, Houghton Mifflin,1994, p312
[20] Graham, H T, opcit, p302
[21] Cummings,Thomas G and Warley, Organization Development and Change, 8 th Edition, Thomson South Western, Ohio, 2005, p216
[22] Byars and Rue, opcit, p231
[23] Wexley and Latham, opcit, p114
[24] Wexley, Kenneth N, opcit, p115
[25] Mathis, Robert, Jackson, John H,Personel/Human Resource Management, Minessota: West Publishing Company, 1991, p284
[26] Barutçugil, İsmet, Stratejik İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, İstanbul: Kariyer Yayıncılık, 2004 p365
[27]French, Wendell,L,Bell, Ceeil H,Organizational Development, Behavirol Science Interventions for Organization Improvement, 6th ed, New Jersey:Prentice Hall,1999, p248
[28]Graham, HT, opcit, p303
[29] ibid
[30] Wexley, Kenneth N, opcit, p118
[31] Byars and Rue, opcit, p232
[32]Byars, opcit, p212
[33] Wexley, Kenneth N, opcit, p117
[34] Dessler, opcit, p286
[35] Wexley, Kenneth N, opcit, p117
[36] French, opcit, p312
[37] Dessler, opcit, p281
[38] Graham, H T, opcit, p 294
[39] Dessler, opcit, p282
[40] ibid, p283
[41] ibid, p280
[42] ibid, p277
[43] ibid
[44] Gomez-Mejia, Luis R,Balkin,David B,Managing Human Resources, 3th ed, New Jersey:Prentice Hall,2001, p280
[45] Dessler, opcit, p280
[46] Gomez-Mejia, opcit, p280
[47] Dessler, opcit, p277
[48] ibid
[49] Byars and Rue, opcit p234
[50] Graham, H T, opcit, p 303
[51] Dessler, opcit, p278
[52] Berzek, opcit, p85
[53] Sabuncuoğlu, Z, İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Ezgi Kitabevi, Bursa, 2000, p 136
[54] Graham, Bennet, Roger, op cit, 286
[55] Wexley, Plathom, Seattle, opcit, p 126, Graham, Bennet, Roger, opcit , p285
[56] Mc Gehee, W; Thayer, Paul W; Training in Business and Industry, John Wiley Edition, New York, 1961, p 199
[57] Berzek, op cit, p85
[58] Mc Gehee, Thayer, op cit, p 200
[59] Byars and Rue, p215
[60] Berzek, opcit, p86
[61] Wexley, Plathom, Seattle, opcit, p140
[62] ibid, p 140
[63] Gomez, Meija, opcit, p271
[64] Wexley, Plathom, Seattle, p 141
[65] French, p315
[66] Goldstein, Irwin L, Training in Organizations, Needs Assesment, Development and Evaluation, 2nd Edition, Brookss/Cole Publishing Company, California, 1986, p242
[67] Berzek, opcit, p89
[68] Taylor, B; Lippitt, Gordon L, Management Development and Training Handbook, McGraw Hill, London, 1975, p 183
[69] French, opcit, p315
[70] Berzek, opcit, p89
[71] Berzek, opcit, p90
[72] Planty, Earl G, Mc Card, Williams, Efferson, Carlos A, Training Employees and Managers (For Production and Teamwork), The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1948, p 184
[73] Goldstein, opcit, p235
[74] Berzek, opcit, p90 French, opcit, p315
[75] Byars and Rue, opcit, p236
[76] ibid, 236
[77] Proctor; JP, Thornton; WM, Training: A handbook for Line Managers, American Management Associatio, New York, 1961, p 90
[78] Byars and Rue, p235 Berzek, p90
[79] Ergen, Erbil, İnsan Kaynakları Yönetiminde Eğitim, Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış YLisans Tezi, İstanbul, 2005, p63
[80] French, p315-316
[81] Berzek, opcit, p91
[82] French, Bell, opcit, p243
[83] Mc Gehee, Thayer, op cit, p206
[84] French, opcit, p318
[85] Dessler, opcit, p 289
[86] French, Bell, opcit, p 245
[87] Dessler, opcit, p 290
[88] Byars and Rue, opcit, p236
[89] French, opcit, p318
[90] ibid
[91] Berzek, p86
[92] Graham, H T, age, p 305
[93] Dessler, age, p279
Training Methods | Eğitim&Personel Gelişimi | HR Türkiye